The experimental heating of rye, oat, spelt, wheat and barley between 215 and 300 °C: the stable carbon and nitrogen isotope data and the photographic evidence of changes to the morphology of the grains.

The effect that heating has on cereal grain morphology and isotopic values has far reaching consequences for archaeobotanical research and palaeodietary reconstructions. Stable carbon and nitrogen isotopic data and mass loss percentages on, and photographs of, rye, oat, barley, wheat and spelt from a heating experiment are presented and support Stroud et al. (2023). The experiment heated rye, oat, and spelt at 215 °C, 230 °C, 245 °C, 260 °C and 300 °C for 4 h, 8h and 24 h, with each temperature/duration condition consisting of 3 samples of 10 grains per sample. The mass loss of the grains, the %C and %N, and δ13C and δ15N values are presented. Furthermore, photographs of the grains' external and internal morphology for each temperature/duration combination are provided. The wheat and barley data of samples charred between 215 °C and 260 °C/ 4-24 h were obtained from the published and unpublished dataset of Nitsch et al. (2015) and it is this dataset which the new data builds upon. This article also provides the published and unpublished data and photographs from Nitsch et al. (2015), bringing together a dataset of nine crop species. This article provides the raw data from two cereal grain heating experiment, which will enable further research into understanding the impact of heating on both grain isotopic values and grain morphology. It also allows users to construct charred-uncharred isotopic offsets for a combination of species relevant to their research.

Roman to early medieval cereal farming in the Rhineland: weeds, tillage, and the spread of the mouldboard plough.

A new model for gauging levels of soil disturbance (i.e. tillage) by analysing arable weed assemblages from archaeological contexts is applied to an extensive Roman-to-early medieval archaeobotanical sequence from the region west of Cologne. It tests the hypothesis that increasing use of the mouldboard plough, especially in a three-field system, would result in increased levels of soil disturbance which would be reflected in the kinds of weeds that grew in arable fields. The results point to clear differences in tillage regimes during the Roman period, providing support for the view that military sites were not provisioned by the same networks that supplied the civilian market. They also reveal generally low disturbance levels for the fifth and sixth centuries, indicating a continuing predominance of ard cultivation in the post-Roman period. The majority of seventh- to eighth-century samples had, however, been grown in 'high disturbance' conditions, a pattern that continued through the eighth and ninth centuries. Although use of the mouldboard plough within a fully developed three-field system may not have become widespread until the tenth or eleventh century, our evidence suggests that a plough capable of turning over the soil was in use in the Rhineland at a much earlier date.

Lesions in sheep elbows: Insights from a large-scale study.

OBJECTIVES: Enthesophytes on sheep elbow joints are commonly reported in archaeological material. Although these lesions are often described as 'penning elbow', little is known of their aetiology. In this study, a new method for recording these lesions is presented, and the effect of age, sex and body size is explored to understand their potential for informing upon past human-animal interactions. MATERIALS: 1133 distal humerii and proximal radii from 16 archaeological sites. METHODS: The presence and severity of enthesophytes were recorded and findings compared with modern data from a group of 17 complete Soay sheep skeletons. RESULTS: Significant, positive correlations between age and body size and the presence of enthesophytes were demonstrated. Environmental factors and trauma may also play a role in their formation. CONCLUSION: The aetiology of enthesophytes on sheep elbows is complex and varied, affected by age, body size and environment. SIGNIFICANCE: This is the first study of enthesophytes on sheep elbows to combine archaeological data with modern animals of known age and sex. Blanket explanations of husbandry methods for the cause of these lesions are dispelled, and use of the term 'penning elbow' is redundant. LIMITATIONS: The sample of modern specimens is relatively small and would benefit from the inclusion of older individuals and those raised in different environments. FUTURE RESEARCH: The method developed here can be adopted in future studies. Interpretations should take age, size and environmental factors into consideration, and only when these variables are established can the role of husbandry be evaluated.

Identifying draught cattle in the past: Lessons from large-scale analysis of archaeological datasets.

PURPOSE: Improve understanding of the links between biological variables (sex, body size and anatomical position) and adaptive remodelling of autopodia, and the identification of traction use in the archaeological record. METHODS: A modified version of the recording system for identifying draught cattle in the archaeological record (Bartosiewicz et al., 1997) was applied to a sample of 1509 bones from six sites from medieval England. Analysis focused on identifying correlations between pathological and sub-pathological changes in lower-limb bones in relation to anatomy, sex and body mass. RESULTS: A correlation between sex, body mass and lower limb bone changes was demonstrated. The need to consider anterior and posterior limb bone elements separately to maximise the potential for identifying cattle used for traction was identified. Changes in hindlimb elements were highlighted as the most useful indicator of draught use. CONTRIBUTION: This study provides new, detailed evidence for a previously poorly understood correlation between the effects of anatomical position, sex and body size and the nature of skeletal changes traditionally associated with draught cattle. It pulls together findings and makes comprehensive suggestions for future studies. LIMITATIONS: This is a purely methodological paper. Although general results are presented, there is insufficient space to include a full case study. This will be published separately within the results of the FeedSax project. FURTHER RESEARCH: Future studies into the use of cattle for draught purposes in the past should take in to account the sex and size of the animals under consideration, and analyse anterior and posterior elements separately.

Close Companions? A Zooarchaeological Study of the Human-Cattle Relationship in Medieval England.

Across medieval Europe, cattle commanded a major, if shifting, economic and social value, and their use for meat, milk, and traction is well established. Although the changing roles of cattle throughout this period may have influenced relationships between humans and cattle, this has been largely neglected in historical and zooarchaeological studies. Data from nearly 700 archaeological assemblages of animal remains have been used to provide an overview of the herd structures (age and sex) of cattle populations for England between AD 450 and 1400. These have been analysed alongside pathological and sub-pathological changes in over 2800 lower limb bones of cattle from seventeen archaeological sites to provide a better understanding of the use of cattle for ploughing, hauling, and carting. The findings were considered alongside historical documents and ethnographic evidence to chart changing human-cattle relationships. Results indicate that human-cattle relations varied with changing economic, agricultural, and social practices. From the mid-fifth century, cattle were a form of portable wealth, however, by the mid-ninth century, they were perceived as a commodity with monetary value. From this period, close human-cattle bonds are likely to have been widespread between plough hands and working animals. Such bonds are may have diminished with the increasing number of young beef cattle kept to supply the urban population from the mid-eleventh century.

Periodontal disease in sheep and cattle: Understanding dental health in past animal populations.

OBJECTIVE: To provide a comparative baseline for future studies of oral pathology in domestic livestock and to better understand connections between lesion prevalence and biological context in past animal populations. MATERIALS: Over 1600 sheep and cattle mandibles recovered from archaeological sites in England between 500 and 1300 CE. METHODS: A comprehensive investigation of periodontal disease was conducted based on four characteristics: dental calculus; periosteal new bone formation; alveolar recession; and ante-mortem tooth loss. The anatomical position and severity of these lesions were quantified and correlated against the age of each individual. RESULTS: Two types of periosteal new bone formation were recognized: one in the growing mandibles of young animals, the other in older animals and associated with disease. The incidence of calculus and alveolar recession increase with age. Correlations exist between calculus, alveolar recession and periosteal new bone formation. Disruption caused by the eruption of the P4 is also implied as a contributory factor to the onset of periodontal disease. CONCLUSIONS: When interpreting periodontal disease in zooarchaeological collections it is vital to consider the effect of age as well as environmental and genetic factors. SIGNIFICANCE: This is the first comprehensive zooarchaeological study to investigate the effect of age on periodontal disease. It provides a better understanding of the frequency and presentation of periodontal disease as a baseline for future studies. LIMITATIONS: Cattle mandibles are under-represented due to poor survival. Ideally, radiographs of mandibles with ante-mortem tooth loss would be taken, but this was not possible. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH: The role of genetic factors, diet and environment needs to be better understood.